Urban governance and human security in Nigeria
By
Godwin Onu
Professor
Department of Political Science
Awka,
godwinonu2003@yahoo.com
Abstract
One of the
traumatic challenges of governance in developing societies has been how to
manage environment for sustainability. This problem appears particularly acute
in urban centers because they attract tremendous migrants from rural areas and
to that extent inhabit greater concentration of people with diverse culture,
history, and citizenship. These diverse concentrations not only over-stretch
urban infrastructure, but in most cases create social and economic problems of
human security. Urbanization becomes a matter of concern in this regard because
of its human security dimension which poses problems for governance.
This paper
attempts to examine urban environmental governance and ethics in
Finally, the
paper looked at governance strategies put in place between this period to
guarantee sustainability and human security as well as their successes and
failures and suggest how problems of urbanism/urban character as well as urban
governance can be managed for sustainability and peaceful co-existence.
Key Words: Urbanization, Governance, Human
Security, Urban governance
Introduction
Urbanization is
the act in which rural land is being sacrificed to build industrial, commercial
and modern residential sites (http://www.youthlinks.org/). To say that upsurge in the population of
cities has been a major push factor responsible for urbanization is saying the
obvious. This is to say that increase in population of cities due primarily to
migration has accounted for this major upsurge. The problems posed by this
upsurge are better imagined than experience. Nsiah (n.d) even acknowledged this
in his note that urbanization, has largely
contributed to the associated problems of unemployment, poverty, inadequate
health, poor sanitation, urban slums and environmental degradation which he
argued pose a formidable challenge in many developing countries. The
Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division of the United
Nations has described the urban world as being in the state of upward
progression. It estimated the world’s urban population at 3billion in year
2003, with an exception to increase to 5billion by 2030. it also projected that
by the end of the decade more that half of the global population will be living
in urban areas and by 2030 over 1billion people live under the poverty line
across the globe and over 750 million live in urban areas without adequate
shelter and basic services. It is also
projected that the population of less developed countries will grow from 1.9
billion in 2000 to 3.9billion in 2030 while the urban population of developed
countries is expected to increase at a slower pace from 0.9billion in 2000 to 1
billion in 2030. Uppal (n.d) wrote that today, almost 3 billion people
live in urban areas. Over 75 per cent of the population of North America,
Europe and
Table 1
Average yearly urbanization growth as %.
|
Country / Region |
1950–1955 |
1955–1960 |
1960–1965 |
1965–1970 |
1970–1975 |
1975–1980 |
1980–1985 |
1985–1990 |
1990–1995 |
1995–2000 |
2000–2005 |
|
|
4.50 |
4.63 |
4.85 |
4.68 |
4.37 |
4.45 |
4.38 |
4.26 |
4.16 |
3.91 |
3.76 |
|
|
5.57 |
5.77 |
6.08 |
6.07 |
6.28 |
6.56 |
5.36 |
5.56 |
5.31 |
5.10 |
4.70 |
|
|
3.21 |
3.32 |
3.00 |
3.03 |
2.82 |
2.64 |
2.73 |
2.63 |
3.50 |
3.15 |
2.13 |
|
|
3.14 |
3.23 |
2.88 |
2.90 |
2.66 |
2.46 |
2.49 |
2.29 |
3.41 |
3.13 |
2.09 |
Average
yearly urbanization growth as %. From: World Urbanization Prospects: The 2001 Revision, FN 2002.
Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa
Following the above scenario, the
UN-HABITAT (2007), wrote that the year 2007 will be the year in which for the
first time, half of humanity will be living in towns and cities. It is a year
that marks the beginning of a new urban era. It also projected that by 2030
that figure will rise to two-thirds. According to HABITAT, the cities growing
fastest are those of the developing world. In this context, it notes that the
fastest growing neighbourhoods are the slums. Another and unacceptable feature
according to it of the new urban age is that 2007 will also be the year in
which the global number of slum dwellers is forecast to reach the 1 billion
mark. The Habitat (p9) notes further that Worldwide, 18% of all urban housing
units (some 125 million units) are non-permanent structures and at least 25% of
all housing (175 million houses) does not meet urban construction codes.
Furthermore for every 10 non-permanent houses in the cities of developing
countries, 3 or 4 are located in areas prone to floods, landslides, hurricanes
and earthquakes. In 2003, two-thirds of overcrowding was in Asia with half of
the people (156 million) in
Fig
1 World Population Projection.
Source:
Source Urban Governance: Good Practices & New innovations Sivananthi Sivananthi Thanenthiran
Thanenthiran UNDP UNDP-TUGI
Olotuahi
and Adesuji (n.d) wrote that the growth rate of urban population is more
pronounced in Nigeria than most other countries in the African continent. The number of urban centres in
The provision of public infrastructure and
social services has equally suffered neglect, and the process of urban planning
and zoning has been slow or stagnant in many cases. Population growth has outpaced the rate of
housing provision. Consequently there is
the preponderance of the large proportion of urban dwellers living in housing
and environmental conditions that are clearly an affront to human dignity.
These are often in low wage employment and a sizeable proportion of the
population are unemployed. They engage in untoward activities, which are
encouraged by the poor economic and physical conditions they are exposed to,
their housing conditions being the major contributory factor (p2)
Push
factors in urban process
Generally speaking many factors have been
identified as push factors in urban process especially rural-urban migration.
These include income, socio-economic variables, gender factors, age, education
etc (Hugo, 1998; Todaro, 1984; Greenwood, 1975; Hausen, 1997; Callaway, 1967;
Rempel, 1970; Caldwell, 1969 and Adepoju, 1974; Adepoju, 1977), and more
importantly is the cost-benefit calculation between the point of sending and
destination (Todaro, 1987; 1989 In Akinyemi A.. and Olaopa and Oloruntimehin (ND)
Zulu, Konseiga, Darteh, and Mberu (n.d.)
wrote in their study of Nairobi that urban population growth in sub-Saharan
Africa is driven by migration of young adults seeking better livelihoods in
cities. Their findings show that while a significant proportion of the
population has lived in slums for many years, there is considerable turn-over
of the population, with 40% of immigrants coming from other urban areas. Most
immigrants come to
In most of sub-saharan
Classical migration theories portray migrants as homo economicus
moving to areas which maximize their household incomes and overall well-being
(Harris and Todaro 1970; Fields 1975; Stark 1984; Stark and Bloom 1985;Oucho
1998).
ESCA (2005, p4) wrote that the impetus
for increased urbanization came with the advent of the industrial age. As
industrialization progressed, economic activity became increasingly concentrated
in urban centers and people began to migrate from rural areas to avail
themselves of new employment opportunities. Thus the “urban footprint” of a
city includes all the land needed to sustain the city.
Another push factor in wanting to move from
rural to urban areas is that migrants think living will be better in urban
centers. According to Echebiri, (2005, p3) urbanization could be an aversion
response to the prevalent poor socio-economic conditions in rural areas. Most
rural areas are characterized by gross inadequacy and often total lack of basic
social and physical infrastructures, very low net returns to labour and
capital, low life expectancy and various poverty linked characteristics that
tend to have deep-rooted cultural underpinnings.
Table 2
Distribution of sample by reasons for urban
settlement in Umuahia urban.
Echebiri: p12
Many research reports according to
Echebiri have given indications that this trend is worsened by the shortage of
physical and financial productive assets and economic opportunities on one
hand, and lack of human capital development facilities in many rural areas.
This according to him implies that lack of job opportunities and lack of
infrastructural facilities were two mutually reinforcing problems that informed
the youths’ preference for urban residency. Therefore, the unfettered growth of
urban unemployment through rural-urban migration has been a direct consequence
of government’s lopsided effort to promote both social and economic development
of urban areas at the expense of balanced development of both rural and urban
areas
In some countries, rural
inhabitants habor the impression that
food prices are lower in the cities. This in turn has led to lowered income in
rural areas and therefore higher migration to urban areas. (Rakodi, 1997; Aase,
2003).
Rakodi also identified war and economic misconduct as push
factors that have led to the dilution of rural resources and periodically very
high rural-urban migration. At the end of the 1980s, he wrote, there were only 18
African countries that had not experienced a military coup against their
government (Rakodi, 1997).
Olotuahi
and Adesuji (n.d.) identified numerous economic
and political conditions which are capable of affecting the rate of urbanization and city growth. First, a productivity
differential between the agricultural and urban sectors is the key driving
force of migration, as it creates the actual migration incentive. Where this
differential is largest, urban migration will take place rapidly and at a large
scale. Because technological advance can increase this differential,
technological development is also a key factor. However, growth in agriculture,
which could reduce this productivity differential, may also have the effect of
stimulating city growth. Events such as the Green Revolution in Nigeria for
instance which intensify agricultural production, mean that a larger yield can
be produced with fewer workers, reducing the ability of the rural sector to
absorb excess labor, and increasing the incentives to urban migration.
Government
policies according to Olotuahi and Adesuji may also
serve to induce migration to cities. Policies which are created by an urban
bias such as import substitution industrialization will often work at the
expense of agriculture. For example, foreign exchange policies and tariffs can
be used to increase the terms of trade of manufactured goods relative to
agricultural goods, encouraging participation in the industrial sector.
Likewise, government investment in industry is often diverted from agriculture,
further increasing productivity differentials.
Urbanization
in
Spurred by the oil boom
prosperity of the 1970s and the massive improvements in roads and the
availability of vehicles,
Urban centers in Nigeria house
most post-secondary educational institutions and provided most salaried jobs in
addition to housing greater number of manufacturing industries such as textile
mills, steel plants car assembly plants, large construction companies, trading
corporation, and financial institutions.
The dark side of urbanization in
Nigeria
Urbanization in
With the transition to
democratic dispensation in 1999, hopes were high that new blood, time, energy
and resources would be injected into urban governance by incoming civilian
administration. Unfortunately, that was not to be. Corruption, greed, avarice,
as well as client-patron phenomena took center stage in the governance process.
Cities and urban centers in
Housing construction is a booming
business though rarely seemed to keep pace with demand and grossly out of reach
of the poor and average Nigerian that constitute the majority of urban
population. Such urban centers as Port Harcourt in the Niger Delta region,
Onitsha, Aba, Enugu in the south east of Nigeria; Ibadan in the South-West;
Calaber and Benin in the South-South regions all share this characteristics. In
these cities, Nwaka (2005, p.2) notes the prevalence of the poor who are busy
transforming the cities to their accommodation and employment needs which often
run into conflict with official laws and plans. Nigerian tabloid is often
filled with stories of demolition of illegal structures.
To say that these cities are
epitaphs of traffic jam especially during rainy seasons is just saying the
obvious. The traffic Jam and bad road networks gave rise to a new urban
nuisance called motorcycle. In many parts of
Another disturbing character of
urban centers in Nigeria are: indiscriminate dumping of solid waste into
drainages, illegal motor parks, presence of motor pack touts, hawkers that sell
oranges, biscuits, sachet water, bread etc, unregulated transportation
activities, street boys who are popularly called ‘area boys’, high degree of
impersonality, suffocation, stress and frustration and accompanying violent
crimes.
A major driver of urban destruction in
In spite this gloomy scenario,
urban centers in
Human security: Some conceptual clarifications
The concept of human security has been a subject of concern to many
scholars and global institutions alike. Some are narrow in conception while
others are broad based. These range from “freedom from
fear” with stress on protection against violence and effective management of
human rights to freedom from want that guarantees basic livelihood and access
to food, water and medical care (Hunter n.d. P.2). Definitions have been given
by UNDP (1994), Commission on Human Security (2003), World Development Report
(2000/2001). In the context of this discussion we operate with the definition
within the context of Millennium Report as defined by Kofi Anan (2000).
Human
Security…embraces far more than the absence of violent conflict. It encompasses
human rights, good governance, access to education and health care and ensuring
that each individual has opportunities and choices to fulfil his or her own
potential. Every step in this direction is also a step towards reducing
poverty, achieving economic growth and preventing conflict. Freedom from want,
freedom from fear and the freedom of future generations to inherit a healthy
natural environment-these are the interrelated building blocks of human-and
therefore national security (CHS 2003, p. 4).
.
This definition touches on the aspect
that is of interest to this paper. This has to do with how the environment that
is urban impacts on human security. According .Canada
Consortium on Human security, (2006 p.3), the development of urban spaces is,
in a sense, the genesis of the earliest and most basic form of ‘human security’
(pp3-4). It notes that just as the many features of urban spaces can be the building blocks of conflict prevention and
peace, they can equally be tumbling dominoes which can lead to conflict
and threaten urban human security. For example, the concentration
and constant visible presence of minorities that can sensitize urbanites to
diversity can also inflame fanatics and lead to ethnic tensions. The generation
of wealth that makes cities so appealing and productive occurs far more
unevenly in cities than rural areas, with income inequality fuelling
discontent. The same Diaspora which can provide refuge and a sense of identity
may also be restrictive and compel members of the community to support
undesirable actions, or challenge traditional practices. The city is therefore dialectic in that it contains the seeds for its own success and failure. Moreover,
because of the strategic value of cities, they are often targets of violence by
armed groups.
Urban centers
accommodate people of diverse backgrounds and culture. As influx of these
people increase, culture conflicts are bound to occur. Secondly, increase in
the number of urban residents is bound to lead to pressure on available
infrastructure, generation of wastes and demands for housing accommodation and
congestion. Some kinds of micro drivers as poverty, crime, refuse dumping,
human stupor, defecation, unregulated transportation and other psychological
behaviours tend to increase with increase in urbanization and these pose great
dangers to human security.
Adger (2005, p.1) identified some social
indicators that could undermine human security in urban centers or cities.
These include: poverty, the degree of support (or conversely discrimination)
people receive from the State, their access to economic opportunities, the
effectiveness of decision making processes that govern people’s lives and the
extent of social cohesion within and surrounding vulnerable groups. These
factors determine people’s entitlements to economic and social capital.
Habitat, (p9) notes that when 4 or more people live together in one tiny room,
they experience a loss of dignity and are susceptible to infectious diseases
and domestic violence.
As Uppal
observed, urbanization, the high level of industrial development causes
increased amounts of pollution which is detrimental to our environment. With a
growing population, urbanization is also taking up our vast rural lands,
limiting the amount of food our world can produce. Furthermore, the dense
amount of citizens residing within these new, unsanitary urban centers
increases the amount of poverty and disease witnessed within our modern world.
Thus, urbanization is having a negative impact on our global society because it
is causing an increase in pollution, depleting agricultural land, and creating
high levels of unhealthy conditions among nations.(Uppal, n.d.
http://www.youthlinks.org/students/index.do?moduleID=)
Uppal gave example of
Urbanization also affects more land
devoted to food production. This leads to food insecurity. In many parts of
Uppal gave further example of four
million of
Canadian consortium on human security
observed the shift from international to intra-state conflict since the 1960s.
It witnessed that cities are playing a more significant role in patterns of
conflict. These conflicts according to it are characterized by the pre-eminence
of small arms and the participation of irregular forces operating outside
accepted humanitarian norms, making them at once more decentralized and less
disciplined. In this regard urban civilian populations have frequently been
exploited in conflicts as high value political targets which can be terrorized
in large numbers. The lines between war and crime are blurring, and
transnational phenomena, including terrorism, international crime and
trafficking in small arms, drugs, women and children increase the risk to all.
Cities also bring groups with potential for conflict into very close proximity
with each other, often in the context of violent struggles over land ownership
and contested urban centres and symbols of political, religious and cultural
power.(Canada Consortium on Human security, 2006 p.3). In fact Kaplan’s
description of
I got a
general sense of the future while driving from the airport to downtown
Urban
governance
Examination of some these circumstances
points to the extent such states in general and cities have failed in their
responsibilities. The
Furthermore, cities have centripetal
where new ideas, technology, and wealth are created. Since the end of the
Second World War, according to CCHS, regions
that have facilitated the growth of cities with stable, predictable, and generally liberal economic and security policies
at the national and local levels
have witnessed an explosion in the numbers of their cities—whose
dynamism and vitality can flourish under those circumstances, animating growing
economies—and tended to be the most
prosperous. In turn, flourishing cities it argues ‘pull’ migrants from
the countryside, further fuelling the rate of urbanization.
However, government failure could impact
adversely on human security. It gave examples of failed cities across the world
and reasons for such failure. These include: Mogadishu (gangs, bad governance),
Rio de Janeiro (high crime), Port-au-Prince (gangs), Moscow (governance),
Nairobi (poverty), Lagos (poverty, violence), Abidjan (ethnic violence), Dhaka
(poverty), Medellin (weak government), Mexico City (corruption), Nuevo Laredo
(gangs), La Paz (protests, ethnic violence), Grozny (infrastructure, state
repression), Paris (ghettoization), Los Angeles (racialization), Birmingham
(racialized ethnic violence), Mumbai (poverty) CCHS p9.
City failure implies failure of
governance. This phenomenon is the dominant feature of many of
Urban centers have also been incubators
of criminal gangs. In
The faceless nature of urban centers in
In some cases parents of youths live in the country
side and their siblings who suppose to be under their control sneak into the
cities to make a living and remit resources to poor parents at homes. The
sources of remittances are hardly questioned. This situation encourages not
just urban crimes but also spread of HIV AIDS that endanger human security.
Pedrazzini, Boisteau, (2006) identified
how urbanization encourages anomic behaviour due to ambiguity of city spaces
noting that certain acts of violence depend on spontaneous emotions of
individuals as each person tries to remain rational leading to violence based
on calculations of costs and benefits.
Urban centers are often targets of
terrorism as witnessed during September 11 on the
Fig
2
Lagos
explosion: who is to blame
Last
Sunday hundreds of people, many of them women and children were killed in
Nigeria's commercial capital, Lagos after explosions at an army munitions dump (Wednesday, 6
February, 2002, 15:26 GMT )
Fig 3 A feature of collapse building at
the heart of Lagos Nigeria
This is
one of the many stories of
The World Bank
warned that
The bank further found that
urban pollution and poor management of municipal waste (sewage and refuse) add
to the health hazards. Numerous industries, from pulp to petroleum, dump
untreated and often toxic liquids in open gutters, streams, rivers, and
lagoons. And, as elsewhere, motor vehicles contaminate the air, land, and
water. This is a common urban behaviour across
According to Wolf (2004, p7), the sheer
magnitude of the solid waste problem in
Urban Governance since
1999
The nature of urban governance that could
solve the problems of human security is the one that is rooted in the
democratic principles of accountability, responsibility and transparency. Chong rightly pointed out, the emergence of a general consensus that the
degradation of cities is not so much a product of population growth but a
consequence of poor managerial policies. To that extent cities such as
Good governance must be predicated on the
involvement of all stakeholders in the society.
Fig 5 Good governance template.
Meghan McGuinness http://www.kimep.kz/SSE/popdevk/Topics/Conferences/Urbanization/mcguinness4-deh.html
Policy
strategies of Environmental governance in
Although the Federal Environmental
Protection Agency was put in place in 1988 representing an earlier effort,
follow up measures demonstrate that Nigerian has not been found wanting in
putting policies in place. For example, A Federal Ministry of Environment was
created in 1999 which was an effort to register the government concern for the
environment. This was followed up by the states which subsequently created
state ministries of environment.
In addition to these measures, the
following regulatory measure have been put in place:
The National Policy on Environment (1989 and revised in 1999); (ii) The
National Agenda 21 (1999). Agenda 21 touches on the various cross-sectoral
areas of environmental concern and maps out strategies for addressing them;
(iii)The National Guidelines and Standards for Environmental Pollution Control
in Nigeria (1999); Procedural and
Sectoral Guidelines for EIA (Jan, 1999); (iv) Natural Resources Conservation Action Plan; (v) National
Fuel Wood Substitution Programme; (vi ) National Guidelines on Waste Disposal
Through Underground Injection (1999); (vii National Guidelines & Standards
for Water Quality in Nigeria; ((viii) National Guidelines for Environmental
Audit in Nigeria (1999); (ix) National Guidelines on Environmental Management
Systems in Nigeia (1999); (x) National
Guidelines for Spilled Oil Fingerprinting (1999); (xi) National Guidelines on
Registration of Environmental Friendly Products and Eco-labeling (1999) ((UNEP,
2006,p. 4 in Onu, 2007).
Since 1999,
Adedeji (1994)
lamented erosion of ethical standards in
Onibokun and Kumuyi (1991, p.1) noted that estimated 20 kg of solid waste is generated per capita
per annum in
Conclusion
Like we stated earlier in this paper,
controlling human insecurity occasioned by urbanization must start with
observing the principles of good governance as shown below:
Fig 6: Principles of good governance
Meghan McGuinness
http://www.kimep.kz/SSE/popdevk/Topics/Conferences/Urbanization/mcguinness4-deh.html]---
This good governance requires
that concerted efforts must be made to address the World Bank projection of
urban residents 100 million capable of living in
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